Four Stroke Engine - How it works

Four-stroke cycle used in gasoline engines. The right blue side is the intake and the left yellow side is the exhaust. The cylinder wall is a thin sleeve surrounded by cooling water.

Four Stroke Engine - Graphical Representation

Power output limit

The four-stroke cycle
1=TDC
2=BDC
 A: Intake 
 B: Compression 
 C: Power 
  D: Exhaust 

The maximum amount of power generated by an engine is determined by the maximum amount of air ingested. The amount of power generated by a piston engine is related to its size (cylinder volume), whether it is a two-stroke or four-stroke design, volumetric efficiency, losses, air-to-fuel ratio, the calorific value of the fuel, oxygen content of the air and speed (RPM). The speed is ultimately limited by material strength and lubrication. Valves, pistons and connecting rods suffer severe acceleration forces. At high engine speed, physical breakage and piston ring flutter can occur, resulting in power loss or even engine destruction. Piston ring flutter occurs when the rings oscillate vertically within the piston grooves they reside in. Ring flutter compromises the seal between the ring and the cylinder wall which results in a loss of cylinder pressure and power. If an engine spins too quickly, valve springs cannot act quickly enough to close the valves. This is commonly referred to as 'valve float', and it can result in piston to valve contact, severely damaging the engine. At high speeds the lubrication of piston cylinder wall interface tends to break down. This limits the piston speed for industrial engines to about 10 m/s.

[edit] Intake/exhaust port flow

The output power of an engine is dependent on the ability of intake (air–fuel mixture) and exhaust matter to move quickly through valve ports, typically located in the cylinder head. To increase an engine's output power, irregularities in the intake and exhaust paths, such as casting flaws, can be removed, and, with the aid of an air flow bench, the radii of valve port turns and valve seat configuration can be modified to reduce resistance. This process is called porting, and it can be done by hand or with a CNC machine.

[edit] Supercharging

One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression device known as a supercharger, which can be powered by the engine crankshaft.
Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.

[edit] Turbocharging

A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine. It consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses the intake air, and the other side that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.
When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the small exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in a naturally-aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the engine speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient to 'spin up' the turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal into the intake manifold.
Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust pressure that would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as turbo lag. The increased engine power is not immediately available, due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin up the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power operation is reached. Another difficulty is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the mechanical parts of the engine.

[edit] Rod and piston-to-stroke ratio

The rod-to-stroke ratio is the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the length of the piston stroke. A longer rod will reduce the sidewise pressure of the piston on the cylinder wall and the stress forces, hence increasing engine life. It also increases the cost and engine height and weight.
A "square engine" is an engine with a bore diameter equal to its stroke length. An engine where the bore diameter is larger than its stroke length is an oversquare engine, conversely, an engine with a bore diameter that is smaller than its stroke length is an undersquare engine.

[edit] Valvetrain

The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of the crankshaft. It has a series of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve during the appropriate part of an intake or exhaust stroke. A tappet between valve and cam is a contact surface on which the cam slides to open the valve. Many engines use one or more camshafts “above” a row (or each row) of cylinders, as in the illustration, in which each cam directly actuates a valve through a flat tappet. In other engine designs the camshaft is in the crankcase, in which case each cam contacts a push rod, which contacts a rocker arm which opens a valve. The overhead cam design typically allows higher engine speeds because it provides the most direct path between cam and valve.

[edit] Valve clearance

Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that ensures that the valve completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment excessive clearance will cause noise from the valve train. Typically the clearance has to be readjusted each 20,000 miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge.
Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for valve train component wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure.

[edit] Energy balance

Otto engines are about 35% efficient – in other words, 35% of the energy generated by combustion is converted into useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine, while the remainder appears as waste heat.^{[citation needed]}By contrast, a six-stroke engine may convert more than 50% of the energy of combustion into useful rotational energy.
Modern engines are often intentionally built to be slightly less efficient than they could otherwise be. This is necessary for emission controls such as exhaust gas recirculation and catalytic converters that reduce smog and other atmospheric pollutants. Reductions in efficiency may be counteracted with an engine control unit using lean burn techniques.^[1]

Starting position, intake stroke, and compression stroke.

Ignition of fuel, power stroke, and exhaust stroke.

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My first love broke my heart for the first time,
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Quick facts about Justin Bieber.

Justin Bieber.

Justin Bieber full name is Justin Drew BieberHe was born March 1st, 1994 (16 years old).
His nicknames: J-Beebs, Justin, JB, Biebs, Bieber, Beebs
His mother name is Pattie
His father name is Jeremy Bieber
His dad plays guitar, and his mom sings.
His grandma was a great piano player.
His Dad remarried.
He is very protective for her lil sister.
He wants to buy a house for his mom when he has $1,000,000.
He is not into blink-blink.
He started dating when he was 13.
His first kiss was when he was 13.
His favorite TV show is smallville.
his favorite video game is nba 2k.
His favorite colors are blue and purple
His favorite food is spaghetti
He speaks fluent French
He is claustrophobic – fear of being in narrow or enclosed spaces, eg: closet, elevators
He perfers Macs over PCs
His favorite number is 6
His favorite music is R&B and Pop
His favorite artists; Usher, Michael Jackson, BoysIImen, Stevie Wonder.
His celebrity crush is Beyonce.
He likes vitamin water
His favorite drink is orange juice
He has a half sister named Jazmine & brother names jaxon
He is a lefty
He can play trumpet, guitar, piano, and drums
He likes captain crunch (with berries)
He can count to ten in German
He once asked out Rihanna and Alexa Chung (got rejected)
His two best friends are Ryan butler and Christian beadles
He once dated Caitlin Beadles (Christians Beadles sister)
His shoe size is 7 and a half
He likes sporty, active, nice, down to earth girls.
He likes sour patch kids
His most embarrassing moment is when he broke his foot on stage during a song (he stayed and finished the song, didn’t even miss a note! so proud ))
He grew up in Canada (Stratford Ontario)
He is signed by Usher. Justin Timberlake was reportedly in the running to sign Bieber.
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He likes tacos
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He likes to skateboard and is good at it
He loves Tim Hortons (very Canadian)
His best friends – Ryan butler & Chaz Somers
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He likes a good smile
His first CD came out in Novemeber 17th 2009
He got his first plaque at YTV’s The Next Star at Canadas wonderland
He would date anyone he falls in love with.
He is now pals with Taylor Swift
He plays four instruments; guitar, piano, drums and trumpet
He raised 150,000 lbs of food for food Bank, with the help of his fans.
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Read more: Justin Bieber Facts | Justin Bieber Zone http://www.justinbieberzone.com/about-justin-quick-facts/#ixzz17qbRFGJ7

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Value Added Tax

A value added tax (VAT) is a form of consumption tax. It is a tax on the "value added" to a product or material, from an accounting view, at each stage of its manufacture or distribution. The "value added" to a product by a business is the sale price charged to its customer, minus the cost of materials and other taxable inputs. A VAT is like a sales tax in that ultimately only the end consumer is taxed. It differs from the sales tax in that, with the latter, the tax is collected and remitted to the government only once, at the point of purchase by the end consumer. With the VAT, collections, remittances to the government, and credits for taxes already paid occur each time a business in the supply chain purchases products from another business. The reason businesses end up paying no tax is that at the time they sell the product, they receive a credit for all the tax they have paid to suppliers.
Maurice Lauré, Joint Director of the French Tax Authority, the Direction générale des impôts, was first to introduce VAT on April 10, 1954, although German industrialist Dr. Wilhelm von Siemens proposed the concept in 1918. Initially directed at large businesses, it was extended over time to include all business sectors. In France, it is the most important source of state finance, accounting for nearly 50% of state revenues.^[1]
Personal end-consumers of products and services cannot recover VAT on purchases, but businesses are able to recover VAT (input tax) on the products and services that they buy in order to produce further goods or services that will be sold to yet another business in the supply chain or directly to a final consumer. In this way, the total tax levied at each stage in the economic chain of supply is a constant fraction of the value added by a business to its products, and most of the cost of collecting the tax is borne by business, rather than by the state. Value Added Taxes were introduced in part because they create stronger incentives to collect than a sales tax does. Both types of consumption tax create an incentive by end consumers to avoid or evade the tax. But the sales tax offers the buyer a mechanism to avoid or evade the tax--persuade the seller that he is not really an end consumer, and therefore the seller is not legally required to collect it. The burden of determining whether the buyer's motivation is to consume or re-sell is on the seller, but the seller has no direct economic incentive to the seller to collect it. The VAT approach gives sellers a direct financial stake in collecting the tax, and eliminates the problematic decision by the seller about whether the buyer is or is not an end consumer.

Justin Timberlake

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